2. Contemporary Chess

In modern times the game of chess has been dominated by Russians with the exception of Bobby Fischer.  In 1972, he won the world championship in Reykjavik by defeating Boris Spassky.  Why are Russians so skilled in chess?  Chess has been an integral part of their educational system for over 50 years. Chess is a powerful weapon of intellectual culture, a slogan under which the Soviet education system (sic) was developed (Schonberg, 1973 p. 218).

Russian chess players have it better, in many respects, than their equivalents anywhere else.  They are spotted when young and, in effect, become wards of the State.  They are supplied with chess teachers and chess manuals; they can and do play hours and hours a day from childhood.  If they are good enough to rise through the System and reach grandmaster status, they receive many benefits a salary at the top Soviet level, additional monies for prizes and writing, a car, a  dacha, an apartment.  Chess is the national sport in Russia, where there are some three million registered players   (as against some 65,000 in the United States), and there the great players are heroes on the level of cosmonauts. (ibid., p. 222)

The Soviet school for many years was supreme in the world not because their men were brainier than players anywhere else, not because of the superiority of their political system, but merely because the Soviet system caught talent early and gave it a chance to develop.  In capitalistic societies players had to make a living, and there were  surprisingly few full-time chess professionals.  Who in the West had the luxury of spending all their time at chess, without anything to distract them? (ibid., p. 225)

3. Chess in Cognitive and Memory Development

Historically chess has been used as a research tool by many psychologists. For example, Alfred Binet who in 1893 researched memory in blindfolded chess players, was one of the earliest psychologists to use chess to study memory (Hearst, 1969 p.22).

Freud (1913) compared the rules of psychoanalytic treatment with the rules of chess:

"both give rise to an infinite variety of moves which are limited only in the opening and closing phases.  Among them there are some which may  seem to be petty details, as indeed they are. Their justification is that they are simply rules of the game which acquire their importance from their relation to the general plan of the game. I think I am well-advised, however, to call these rules 'recommendations' and not to claim any unconditional acceptance for them. The plasticity of all mental processes and the wealth of determining factors oppose any mechanization of the technique; and they bring it about that a course of action that is as a rule justified may at times prove ineffective, whilst one that is usually mistaken may once in a while lead to the desired end. These circumstances, however, do not prevent us from laying down a procedure for the physician which is effective on the average. 

The comparison with chess is an obvious one when seeking to illustrate the diversity of the ways in which treatment can be conducted. The complex interactional sequences which, in a certain form, underlie defense or the end game in chess bear similarities to the strategies used in conducting treatment. Recommendations can be formulated which   express strategic considerations in the form of rules. The actual rules of play in chess, e.g., those which lay down how the pieces may be moved and which have, as it were, the function of laws, have to be understood differently, since if they are not followed, there is no game at all" (Freud, 1913; translated in Kächele, 1987 p. 215).

This understanding is consistent with literature on cognitive skill put into practice, for example Newell's (1990) Soar theory on how human cognition is expressed in the form of a production system: the principal element in episodic memory.

The solution of a problem is seen as developing from some form of search task. Chunking is the primary mechanism for learning and represents the conversion of problem-solving into long-term memory. Newell (1990) states, rehearsal helps learning, provided it involves active processing (i.e., creation of chunks). Chunking is the basis for the organization of memory (Newell, 1990; Theory Into Practice (TIP) Database, 2002).

"In chess, these chunks may be seen as visual representations in which particular configurations are recognized that relate to and often cue prior successful responses or patterned responses. It would appear that avid chess players develop complex, but efficient structures for memory storage and management through this process of chunking.  Researchers concluded that meaningful knowledge is stored in the memory in the form of networks and patterns and that these patterns provide the roots essential for recall". (Milat, 2000)

Ferguson (1995) states, "Chess has even been shown to raise students overall IQ scores.  Using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children a Venezuelan study of over 4000 second grade students found a significant increase in most IQ scores after only 4.5 months of systematically studying chess. 

This occurred across all socio-economic groups and for both males and females.  The Venezuelan government was so impressed that all Venezuelan schools introduced chess lessons starting in 1988-1989". (Ferguson, 1995 p. 8)

During A 1987-88 study Development of Reasoning and Memory through Chess, all students in a rural Pennsylvania sixth grade self-contained classroom were required to participate in chess lessons and play games.  None of the pupils had previously played chess. The pupils significantly improved in both memory and verbal reasoning.  The effect of the magnitude of the results is strong (eta2 is .715 for the Memory test gain compared to the Norm). Results suggest that transfer of the skills fostered through the chess curriculum occurred" (Ferguson 1988; see also Ferguson 1994, 1995).

Early chess instruction would correlate to a childs mental development stage in Piagets Genetic Epistemology theory as the development of intelligence in the preoperational period (3-7 years) is viewed as intuitive.  During the concrete operational stage (8-11 years) cognitive structure is believed to be logical, but depends on concrete referents (T.I.P. Database, 2002). Therefore it would seem that the optimum time to introduce chess is in the second or third grade.  The fundamentals of chess ought to be reinforced in grades four to five in order to optimize intellectual development. 

Integrating chess in the curriculum with other subject areas is promising, as it helps to balance a school day.  Attempting to add chess instruction as an additional curriculum expectation alone could be quite demanding, yet it can be established as an extra-curricular activity for those who are interested.

One of the principles developed by Piaget (1970) states, "cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners and require adaptation." Piaget's research in developmental psychology and genetic epistemology questioned, "How does knowledge grow?" The answer is "that the growth of knowledge is a progressive construction of logically embedded structures superseding one another by a process of inclusion of lower less powerful logical means into higher and more powerful ones up to adulthood. Therefore childrens logic and modes of thinking are initially entirely different from those of adults" (Piaget, 1970; see also Mussen, 1983).

Gibbons (2001) has developed the Model-Centered Instruction (MCI) theory that favours the proposed design for chess instruction. The principles of model-centered instruction are:

Experience: Learners should be given maximum opportunity to interact for learning purposes with one or more systems or models of systems of three types: environment, system, and/or expert performance. The terms model and simulation are not synonymous; models can be expressed in a variety of computer-based and non-computer-based forms.

Problem Solving: Interaction with systems or models should be focused by the solution of one or more carefully selected problems, expressed in terms of the model, with solutions being performed by the learner, by a peer, or by an expert.

Denaturing: Models are necessarily denatured from the real by the medium in which they are expressed. Designers must select a level of denaturing matching the target learners existing knowledge and goals.

Sequence: Problems should be arranged in a carefully constructed sequence for modeled solution or for active learner solution.

Goal orientation: Problems selected should be appropriate for the attainment of specific instructional goals.

Support: The learner should be given problem solving information resources, materials, and tools within a solution environment (which may exist only in the learners mind) commensurate with instructional goals and existing levels of knowledge.  The learner should be given support during solving in the form of dynamic, specialized, designed instructional augmentations. (Gibbons, 2001; see also Theory into Practice (TIP) Database, 2002)

4. Chess Develops Critical Thinking Skills

One of the many essential goals of education is to teach children to think critically. Brookfield (1987) suggests that students must learn to make reasoned judgments, "critical thinking is a productive and positive activity"(p. 5).

Chess is an excellent tool to demonstrate critical thinking in action.  For example, during a game a player must formulate a plan of attack and/or defense. The formulation of a plan requires not only reflection on how similar problems have been solved, based on prior knowledge and experience, but the player must also systematically check the possible contrary combinations of moves in order to evaluate the outcome. In the process, pieces are mentally envisioned to be moving from square to square.  Boyd and Fales (1983) suggest "the player reflects on the characteristics of the position in order to perform a move. Such reflection is the basis of critical thinking."   Reflective learning is "the process of internally examining and exploring an issue of concern, triggered by an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and which results in a changed conceptual perspective"  (Brookfield 1987, p.14).

An important element of critical thinking in chess is the evaluation process where the strength of one's position is assessed.  An important element of critical thinking in chess is the evaluation process where the strength of one's position is assessed. Beginners who play chess (and early computer programs) place significant emphasis on material - reasoning that the player with more material will win by sheer numbers. Material plays a central role in winning a chess game but many more ideas are needed for a useful evaluation of a position. More advanced players find a balance. Included in their evaluation processes are the ideas of central control, pawn structure, material, space, maneuverability, king safety, initiative and development of pieces. The brain has internalized these values allowing the player to make a reasoned judgment of which particular themes are critical in evaluating his or her own position. (Milat, 2000)

Chess is not simple, nor is life. Chess is problem-solving, forcing you to look ahead and anticipate, skills we all need to succeed in life.

A four-year study (1979-1983) in Pennsylvania found "that the chess-playing experimental group consistently outperformed the control groups engaged in  other thinking development programs, using measurements from the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal and the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking" (Ferguson, 1986; see also 1988, 1994, 1995; Nurse, 1995; Vail, 1995).

5. The Belgian Study     

In a 1974-1976 Belgium study, by Dr. Adriaan de Groot a chess-playing experimental group of fifth graders experienced a statistically significant gain in cognitive development over a control group using Piagets tests for cognitive development. Perhaps more noteworthy, they also did significantly better in their regular school testing, as well as in  standardized testing administered by an outside agency which did not know the identity of the two groups. "In addition, the Belgium study appears to demonstrate that the treatment of the elementary, clear-cut and playful subject matter can have a positive effect on motivation and school achievement generally..."   (Christiaen, 1976; Ferguson, 1994, 1995). 

6. Chess and Mathematical Development

Are there links between mathematics and chess?   Chess players are often considered by their teachers as being mathematically oriented and there are obvious similarities, since chess is a game of problem solving, evaluation, critical thinking, intuition and planning, much like the study of mathematics. 

"Chess involves numerous abilities - logic in calculating, counting, organizing, weighing, analyzing, focusing, sequencing, and problem solving. Likewise, computer directed learning is especially helpful in the areas requiring more attention: patterning and algebra, geometry and spatial sense, and data management and probability" (Ross et al., 2001).

Schoenfeld's (1985) Mathematical Problem Solving theory suggests "successful solution of mathematics problems depends up on a combination of resource knowledge, heuristics, control processes and belief, all of which must be learned and taught" (T.I.P. Database 2002). He presents the view that understanding and teaching mathematics should be approached as a problem-solving domain.

According to Schoenfeld's (1985) Mathematical Problem Solving theory (T.I.P. Database, 2002), four categories of knowledge/skills are needed to be successful in mathematics:

(1) Resources - proposition and procedural knowledge of mathematics;

(2) heuristics - strategies and techniques for problem solving such as working backwards, or drawing figures;

(3) control - decisions about when and what resources and strategies to use;

(4) beliefs - a mathematical "world view" that determines how someone approaches a problem.  

In a 1977-1979 study at the Chinese University in Hong Kong, Yee Wang Fung remarks, chess players showed a 15% improvement in math and science test scores (Nurse, 1995, p. 15).

7. The New Brunswick Study

Gaudreau (1992) states:

"The mathematics curriculum in New Brunswick is a text called Challenging Mathematics, which uses chess to teach logic and problem solving from grades 2 - 7.  Using this curriculum, the average problem solving score of pupils in the province increased from 62% to 81%. Children who learn chess at an early age achieve more in the traditional math and sciences. Chinese, European, and American research all find significant co-relational values after just one year of systematic chess exposure.  The most striking benefits are those associated with problem-solving and creativity.  University symposia, like the Chess and Mathematics conference at Forli, Italy, in September 1992, now take the chess and math relation as established.   

Chess was integrated into the French Canadian school systems beginning in 1984. The New Brunswick research showed that problem solving skills increased an average of 19.2% after the chess in math program was introduced. The study by Louise Gaudreau (1992), "Étude Comparative sur les Apprentissages en Mathématiques 5e Année", took place in the province of New Brunswick from July 1989 through June of 1992. 

"Three groups totaling 437 fifth graders were tested in this research. The control group (Group A) received the traditional math course throughout the study. Group B received a traditional math curriculum in first grade and thereafter an enriched program with chess and          problem solving instruction. The third group (Group C) received the chess enriched math curriculum beginning in the first grade.

There were no significant differences among the groups as far as basic calculations on the standardized test; however, there were statistically significant differences for Group B and C in the problem solving portion of the test (21.46% difference in favour of Group C over the Control Group) and on the comprehension section (12.02%    difference in favour of Group C over the Control Group). In addition, Group Cs problem solving scores increased from an average 62% to 81.2%". (Lyons, 1992) 

Gaudreau (1992) expressed, "the addition of chess to the math curriculum has exploded scholastic chess in New Brunswick.  With the inclusion of chess in math, a provincial grade school chess championship was established. In 1989, 120 pupils participated. By 1992, 19,290 - yes, 19,290 pupils competed!"   

8. Chess and Reading Skills

Chess forces students to visualize concepts and piece movement, much like a dynamic puzzle. It stands to reason that this may allow for better visualization (interpretive) skills when reading.

Dr. Margulies (1991) a noted educational psychologist and researcher for IBM conducted two studies in "The Effect of Chess on reading Scores in children". The first study was conducted with students in New York City Community School District 9, the South Bronx, and the second study in classrooms in both New York City and Los Angeles. The results in each study were found to be significant.

Dr Margulies concluded, "Chess participation enhances reading performance.  The results of the paired t-tests were significant beyond the .01 level.  The Chi-square test of results of the chess players in the computer -enhanced and high-scoring non-participants was significant at the .01 level. Students in the chess program showed statistically significant greater gains in reading on a nationally standardized achievement test than did the control group. The chess players outperformed the average student in the country and the average student in the school district. The gains were particularly impressive among children who started with relatively low or average initial scores.  Children in the non chess playing control groups showed no gain".  (Margulies, 1992; see also Vail,1995)

Interviews and analysis by Dr. Margulies (1991) offer possible explanations of these exceptional results:

"The cognitive processes used in chess and reading are very similar. Both chess and reading involve processes of decoding, thinking, comprehending and analyzing all higher order skills. Chess and reading are decision-making activities and some transfer of training from one to the other may be expected.

Furthermore, it is believed chess play develops general intelligence, self-control, analytical skills and increased ability to concentrate. They argue that enhanced reading skills naturally follow.

Teachers interviewed believe that chess-playing students develop enhanced ego strength as they increase their chess competence. They argue that students who feel confident and good about themselves naturally learn to read better.

Chess participants form a pool of intellectually gifted and talented students. Students who join this group make contact with a core of high achievers and thereby develop more academic interests, speak at higher levels of standard American speech and take on the values of achievement. This study conclusively proves that pupils who learned chess enjoyed a significant increase in their reading skills" (Margulies, 1992; see also Vail, 1995).

Dual Coding Theory proposed by Paivio (1986) has been applied to many cognitive phenomena including: mnemonics, problem-solving, concept learning and language. "Dual coding theory accounts for the significance of spatial abilities in theories of intelligence" (Theory Into Practice (T.I.P. Database, 2002). 

Paivio (1986) states, "Human cognition is unique in that it has become specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and with nonverbal objects and events. Moreover, the language system is peculiar in that it deals directly with linguistic input and output (in the form of speech or writing) while at the same time serving a symbolic function with respect to nonverbal objects, events, and behaviors. Any representational theory must accommodate this dual functionality" (Paivio, 1986, p. 53). 

Frank (1978) in a 1973-74 study in Zaire found that good teenage chess players (16-18 years old) had strong spatial, numerical, administrative-directional, and paperwork abilities.

This was also evedenced in a 1994-97 Texas study which established, "that regular (non-honors) elementary students who participated in a school chess club showed twice the improvement of non-chess players in Reading and Mathematics between third and fifth grades on the Texas Assessment of Academic Skills" (Liptrap, 1998, 1999).

9. Chess and Social Skills

In the schools, chess often serves as a bridge, bringing together children of different ages, races and genders in an activity they can all enjoy.  Chess helps build individual friendships and also school spirit when children compete together as teams against other schools.  "Chess also teaches children about sportsmanship - how to win  graciously and not give up when encountering defeat.  For children with adjustment issues, there are many examples where chess has led to increased motivation, improved behavior, better self-image, and even improved attendance.  Chess provides a positive social outlet and a wholesome recreational activity that can be easily learned and  enjoyed by both boys and girls at any age" (Scholastic Chess UpDate Newsletter, Vol. 2 -6, July-August, 2002).

In social cognitive theory, self-efficacy is "the belief in ones capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments" (Bandura, 1993).  "Self-efficacy influences behavior through cognitive processes (especially goal setting), motivational processes (especially acknowledgment for success and failure), affective processes (especially control of negative feelings) and selection processes" (Ross et al., 2001).

10. Chess and Art

In the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, chess is defined as an art appearing in the form of a game, a martial art of the mind which can serve to discipline the mind, body and spirit.  Thomas Huxley wrote, "Chess is the world, the playing pieces are what we see in space, and the game rules are natural laws.  Chess enables the artist within to emerge. The imagination is engaged in foreseeing moves, predicting outcomes, exploring new ideas, developing surprising tactics and strategies, combining wisdom and a producing a highly individualistic style" (Huxley, as quoted in Finkenzeller, 1989, p. 34).

"A chess game is a work of art between minds, which need to balance two sometimes disparate goals - to win, and to produce beauty" (Smyslov,1957).                                                                                                                              

Vasily Vasilievich Smyslov was born in Moscow, Russia in 1921. He learned to play chess at the age of 6. He learned much about chess from his father and studied the chess books in his father's library. Smyslov was an opera singer but made chess his career after narrowly failing an audition for the Bolshoi Opera in 1950.  

He once said, "I have always lived between chess and music". He once sang operatic extracts on Swiss radio and during the interval of a serious living chess game against Botvinnik he sang to an audience of thousands. He defeated Botvinnik in 1957 World Championship match but lost the title to Botvinnik in the 1958 rematch (Chess Corner, 2003).       

11. Chess and Creativity

"Chess is a rich, yin/yang tapestry woven of many opposites: Black and White, self and other, attack and defense, win and lose, idea and action, logical and intuition, tradition and discovery" (American Chess School, 2002). 

By its nature chess produces an ever-changing set of problems.  Except for the very beginning of the game, where it is possible to memorize the strongest openings, each move creates a new position. These creative thinking skills are becoming ever more valuable for most students who are frequently confronted with new problems. This adaptability is practical in education. Intuition can be a very useful tool in both problem solving and in real life situations when solutions are not evident. One of the principles of Bruners (1973) constructivist theory suggests "that instruction should be so designed to facilitate extrapolation and/or fill in the gaps by going beyond the information given" (T.I.P. Database, 2003).

Milat (2000) states, "Studies have shown that there seems to be evidence to support the idea that chess acts as a link in connecting form (symbolic) with understanding, physical and visual".

According to a two-year study conducted in Kishinev under the supervision of N.F. Talisina (Education Ministry of the Moldavian Republic, 1985) "grades for young students taking part in the chess experiment increased in all subjects. Teachers noted improvement in memory, better organizational skills, and for many increased fantasy and imagination" (Ferguson, 1994).

12. Chess and Life-long learning

Chess is played in nearly every country in the world. It offers never-ending variety. "After only two moves each, more than 70 000 different moves are possible.  No two games are ever alike" (Nottingham, 1993).

Consequently, chess will evolve. It can be a never ending learning process and as a result, chess may be an educational vehicle for life-long learning. 

"Yet the provincial government tightly controls the supply of grant-supported institutions. The students are merely pieces in an elaborate chess game, or more precisely, checkers. This system is geared toward filling the quota with full time students. For this reason, universities are less inclined to recognize the learning of those who have received their learning elsewhere or to cater to the      continuing education market. The consequence is that Canada is far away from achieving the 'lifelong learning' culture that education advocates desire" (Grant, 2002).

Dr. Stefurak, a cognitive neuropsychologist, remarks "chess instruction informs the mind and the emotions in such a way as to structure an emergent mental circuit where motivation and ability multiply to produce achievement in chess and school in and life" (Stefurak quoted in Vail, 1995).

Research studies demonstrate the positive impact of chess on academic performance and emotional intelligence. Students receiving chess instruction showed statistically significant gains in reading on a nationally standardized achievement test than did the control group. The gains were particularly impressive among children who started with relatively low average initial scores. Evidence also indicates that children develop: 

1) An improved attitude toward school and improved attendance;

2) Increased self-confidence and respect for others; 

3) Enhanced problem-solving, logic and reasoning skills;

4)Organized work habits and increased patience and persistence;

5)Improved emotional control and mood management; and

6) Sustained efforts to achieve personal goals.

                    (Chess-in-the-schools Factsheet, 2001)

In 1992 the State of New Jersey enacted Bill #S452 declaring "that each board of education may offer instruction in chess during the second grade for pupils in gifted and special education programs.  The Department of Education may establish guidelines to be used by boards of education which offer chess instruction in those programs. Observations and research show that young children can be taught to think clearly and with discipline, to plan ahead and to make sound decisions.  Learning these skills in early life can only benefit later intellectual development. Teaching children to perform a complex task like chess may give them problem solving advantages later in life. This act shall take effect immediately" (New Jersey Senate and General Assembly, 1992).

Chess has found its place in society for generations.  It therefore ought to be considered an integral component of any educational curriculum.

"Chess is my life."  Victor Korchnoi

                       "Chess is like life."  Boris Spassky

                                                     "Chess is life."  Bobby Fischer